The Western Blindness to Non-Western Philosophies :: Philosophy China Culture Papers

The Western Blindness to Non-Western Philosophies Western philosophers still tend to think that philosophy, in a sense that they can take with professional interest, does not exist in non-Western traditions. To persuade them otherwise would require them to make an effort that they prefer to evade. I attempt to begin to persuade them by closely paraphrasing a few arguments by the early Chinese philosopher Chuang Tzu and a few by the Indian skeptic and mystic Shriharsha (about 1150 CE). One of Chuang Tzu's arguments has some resemblance to Plato's Third-Man argument, another with the impossibility of distinguishing between waking reality and dream, and a third with the impossibility of objective victories in debates. The skeptic Shriharsha, in a way that can be taken to parallel Wittgenstein's attack on conventional philosophy, shows that philosophical definitions cannot be rigorous enough to fulfill the task that philosophers set for them. The rest of this paper is devoted to the problem of commensurability. I contend that philosophi es are either commensurable or incommensurable depending on the light in which one prefers to see them. Each way of seeing them involves a loss of a possibility that may be considered precious, but the Westerner who continues to insist on the full incommensurability of non-Western philosophies with his or her own is losing a great deal that might be intellectually helpful. We have always been and remain insular. The insularity I am referring to is our professional blindness to any but Western philosophy, which fills our whole professional horizon. Insularity tempts us by its overestimation of whatever we have learned wherever we happen to have grown up, but it is no intellectual birthright. There have been more than a few great thinkers who have done their best to resist it. Kant and Hegel, both conscientious, omnivorous scholars, took the trouble to learn what they could of Indian and Chinese thought, even though, as has become clear, they were not informed well enough to allow them to make plausible judgments. Schopenhauer was extraordinarily favorable to Indian thought but wildly subjective (or egotistical) in his use of it. Wilhelm von Humboldt, eager to understand the nature of languages, made an often painstakingly detailed study of a great number of them-Greek, Latin, Basque, the languages of Central America, Sanskrit, North-American Indian, Chi nese, Polynesia, and Malaysia. (1) What Humboldt learned convinced him that the Indo-European languages — the Sanskritic ones, as he called them — were the best for methodical reasoning.

Religion, Politics and Economy

Through the analysis of archaeological evidence and sources, historians are now able to gain insight into how society functioned in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Though several factors made up these societies, this essay will only examine three; religion local politics and economy to create a picture of how society was. The citizens of Pompeii and Herculaneum were very religious and believed everything in their lives was controlled by the gods. We can see the importance placed on religion from the ten temples in the area, some of which are the Temple Of Jupiter (Capitolium) and the Temple of Apollo.To be a ‘good Roman' pietas, reverence of the gods was required and was an integral part of the persona of any respected Roman. They worshipped many gods, primarily Graeco-Roman deities such as Mars (Aries) and Venus (Aphrodite). The temples had two functions – to house images and objects associated with the god and to be a place where rituals were carried out by priests to honour the gods. They were simply built and contained a statue of the deity which stood before an alter where an offering could be made.The Temple of Apollo on the left and the Temple of Jupiter on the right Gods were orshipped both in public and in the home. Cicero states ‘The most sacred, the most hallowed place on earth is the home of each and every citizen. There are his sacred hearth and his household gods, there the very centre of his worship, religion and domestic ritual. ‘ Most houses had small shrines called Lararia with small statues or painted images of the Lares (household gods who protect the home and family) or other household gods such as Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and Panates, guardian of the pantry.Some houses had images of a genius who was the spirit of the paterfamilias (master of the house). Lararium in the House of the Vetti, showing the Genius between two Lares Statuettes of Lares in House of the Golden Cupid With the spread of the Roman Empire came new foreign religions and cults which were generally tolerated. The Egyptian cult of Isis became popular and appealed especially to the poor and oppressed thanks to the promise of immortality and rebirth. After the earthquake of 62 A.D, the temple of Isis was rebuilt the most elaborately showing how much she was valued. Images of Isis and other Egyptian deities could also be found in homes. Dionysus, the Greek god of fertility and divine intoxication, was worshipped under the ame of Bacchus. A fresco found in the Villa of the Mysteries depicts him initiating members into his secret society. The worship of Mithras that originated is Persia was also common. The Temple of Isis The imperial cult transcended all other cults and the emperor offered every citizen the opportunity of worshipping him.Worship of the emperor was the most important as we can see through the Temple of Vespasian, the temple of Fortuna Augusta which housed a statue of Augustus and the forum which celebrated the imp erial glory through triumphal arches and statues. Altar at the temple of Vespasian ocal politics is shown by the number of political buildings in the forum including the Comitium (voting hall), Basilica, which was originally a law court but morphed into a meeting place for businessmen and politicians, and the three government offices.The electorate consisted of two Duumviri elected each year who has potestas (official power) and the responsibility to oversee revenues and taxation, preside over the town council and perform Judicial roles in court, two Aediles elected each year who were responsible for the care of temples, streets and public buildings and the olding of games, two Duumviri Quinqennales were chosen every five years which performed the same tasks as the Duumviri in addition to revising the citizenship and council roles, and a Prafectus lure Dicundo, who only had power in an emergency.There were various roles that were not accompanied by official political power but were still important. Being a member of the town council (curia), which consisted of eighty to one hundred members, was one such role. The members had influence within the community and needed dignitas and respect from other members before being appointed. A Roman with political ambitions would need to be a free, wealthy man who was driven, had a reputable family or made a good name for himself, have significant dignitas and auctoritas and have connections with those in higher ranking positions.Patrons assisted clients who sought political advancement in return for support in the election campaign. Women did not have the right to vote and weren't allowed to run for any of the political positions but despite these restrictions women could still have a large influence in society as they had â€Å"borrowed† auctoritas from the men in their family. Studies conducted by Frances Bernstein of the University of Maryland revealed that at least seventeen of the electoral notices show women who, with their husbands, were clients of candidates for office.On the wall of a Pompeian house, one Lollia, With her people', most probably her family, urged the election of Gaius Julius Polybius as duumvir, one of the chief magistrates. Most of the evidence for politics comes from inscriptions, graffiti and painted notices. Two thousand of these in Pompeii have been classified as electoral notices announcing support for a candidate and calling on the reader to vote for him. An example of this is â€Å"If upright living is considered any recommendation, Lucretius Fronto is well worthy of office† and Note for Lucious Popidius Sabinus; his grandmother worked hard for his last election†.The Amphitheatre at Pompeii is inscribed with a plaque stating the duumviri paid for it as a gift to the citizens and the statue of Marcus Balbus and memorial alter in the baths at Herculaneum suggest he funded the baths. The economies of Pompeii and Herculaneum were small and local, yet d iverse and successful due to their prime location on the sea and as Strabo recounted surrounded by the fertile volcanic soils of Mount Vesuvius. † A mosaic discovered in the House of Scaurus with the words ‘Profit is my Joy shows that they had enthusiasm for money making.The economies functioned by the circulation of money through businesses such as pistrina (bakeries), cauponae/taberna (inns/taverns), thermopolia (hot food bars) and fullonica (laundries). Jongman stated that â€Å"agricultural production was the largest contribution to the economy. † Trade was vital to create an income and to help the diverse economy flourish. Most of Pompeian imports and exports are deciphered through pottery. The analysis of these sources show that they imported Egypt and furniture from Naples. Evidence of exports comes from garum Jars found in France and wine amphorae in France, Spain, Germany and Africa.Jongman (2009) argues that fullonicas weren't a significant industry but contradictory to this Seneca indicates that 600 sheep died in the earthquake and 18 fullonicas were discovered including the House of the Wooden Partician in Herculaneum where a clothes press was found and the Guild of fullers in the Eumachia building. The fulleries were the clothes makers and cleaners of society and they performed multiple tasks including he processing of wool and the washing, cleaning, rinsing, dying and brushing of cloth. The Pompeian workshop sign of M.Vecilus Verecundus showed the process involved which included the washing of the wool in a combination of what was called fullers earth which consisted of earth, potash, carbonate of soda and urine, which was then trodden on by slaves and hung out to dry. One of the largest fullonicas found was the famous Fullery of Stephanus which was installed in a dwelling on the Via dell'Abbondanza. At the entrance was a machine for pressing tunics, a basin in the atrium and a previous peristyle now containing more basins for the dying rocess.Pots were placed outside the fullonicas and on street corners to collect urine from passer byes as the preferred camel urine was a luxury and costly item. In Pompeii and Herculaneum clothing represented status and keeping clothes clean was necessary to be presentable and maintain that status. Over thirty bakeries have been identified in Pompeii with ovens heated with vine branches. Bread was popular because most homes didn't have ovens and it wasn't expensive. Bakeries grinded grain on lava stone mills which would press it into flour. The flour was then mixed with water and set on tables for kneading.A mule or onkey turned the mill as we can see from donkey skeletons found in the mills of Herculaneum. Bread was usually sent to be sold in shops but not always as some bakeries had connecting shops and sold their own bread. An example of this is N. Popidius Priscus, who used his freedmen to run the Bakery of Modestus in which 81 loaves of bread were found from the day of the eruption. This bakery shows the economic connections between ex-slaves and the upper classes. Twenty five different pans were discovered at Sextus Patulcus Felix's shop in Herculaneum which provides evidence that a variety of cakes and breads were on offer.

Social Classes in the Great Gatsby Essay - 3919 Words

1.Introduction F. Scott Fitzgerald is famous as one of the greatest authors of the twenties. He is referred to as a member of the Lost Generation. His books deal with the idealism and the disillusion of the post-World-War-1 decade and also with the struggle of the American society to find spiritual happiness and material wealth (Di Bacco 525). Long describes Fitzgerald as central to the American twenties or historian of the golden twenties. He names the Jazz Age (177). In his novel The Great Gatsby Fitzgerald describes the social circumstances in the USA in the 1920s with typical representatives of in this time existing social classes in the post-war decade. Wilson can be seen as a representative of the poor people of those†¦show more content†¦The only weak moment the reader witnesses is when he learns that Myrtle has been killed. Nick records his reaction: In a little while I heard a low husky sob, and saw that the tears were overflowing his face. `The God damned coward!#8242; he whimpered. `He didn#8242;t even stop his car.#8242; (Fitzgerald 148) But that is altogether how the narrator sees him; Tom sees himself as a refined person, who believes to know about the superiority of the Nordic race, who is standing alone on the last barrier of civilization and has to defend family life and family institutions(Fitzgerald 136). But he fails to see that his own adultery endangers such values and that his social strength only derives from his family#8242;s wealth. Nevertheless, Tom strikes Nick as not being able to be content with what he possesses, as he feels that Tom will drift on forever seeking, a little wistfully, for the dramatic turbulence of some irrecoverable football game. (Fitzgerald 12) Daisy Fay was born into a wealthy family in Louisville, Kentucky. She is eighteen years old and already drives a roadster, one of the best type of cars in those days. Unlike her husband, Daisy is not that self-conscious. All that she wanted to achieve was a wealthy life,Show MoreRelatedExamples Of Social Classes In The Great Gatsby1381 Words   |  6 PagesGreat Gatsby Essay At the surface level, The Great Gatsby is most renowned for the tragic love story of Jay Gatsby and Daisy. However, despite this popular understanding, it is rare to find an analysis of the underlying reasons behind their failed romance. In society, social class is a commonly used dividing factor that separates people based on income. In a similar way, the main characters of The Great Gatsby are divided into the following social classes; the old money, the newly- rich and theRead MoreSocial Class Distinction in Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby Essay780 Words   |  4 PagesHave you ever thought of how social and economic classes work into a capitalist system? Marxists believe that different social and economic classes should be equal. In the book the â€Å"Great Gatsby† written by F. Scott Fitzgerald these classes are very much defined and show the flaws and reality of how social and economic classes are viewed through Marxists. Viewing the classes through vulgar Marxists the cha racters attempting to climb social and economical ladders in the book are not accepted and rejectedRead MoreSocial Class : The Great Gatsby, Conflicts And Relationships1176 Words   |  5 Pages Social Class is Everything In today’s society, social class plays a large role in who is with who. Celebrity couples and weddings are very commonplace, but the rich and famous rarely marry those who are of the middle, or lower class. If it does happen though, it is usually a rich, older man marrying a young, beautiful woman. This would usually not happen unless the older man was rich, and these relationships do not usually last very long. Along with this, some people in foreign countries still practiceRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1704 Words   |  7 PagesFitzgerald illustrates class structure in the book The Great Gatsby through the different characters in different social classes. Fitzgerald gives settings that correspond with the social classes of the characters to better illustrate what environment he placed each character in. The Buchanan’s, Gatsby, and the Wilsons are examples of the different conflicting social classes Fitzgerald lays out for his readers. Rosanne Tomyn in the article, Changes in Social Class in America in the 1920s, States â€Å"the UnitedRead MoreThe Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald Essay1107 Words   |  5 PagesIn the novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, Fitzgerald writes about the distinctions between the social classes and status during the twentieth century. Fitzgeralds novel takes place in the 1920s after World War 1, which was a time of excess and wealth. The roaring 20s set a perfect stage for Fitzgerald to use setting to explain the differences between the three social classes in his book. Fitzgerald shows the contrasting features between the West and East Egg in New York. FitzgeraldRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By George Orwell1539 Words   |  7 PagesFight Club is the modernised version of The Great Gatsby, when he refers to it as ‘just The Great Gatsby updated a little’. We see when we compare the novels that culture and values have evolved but themes and issues challenging society in the 1920’s world of The Great Gatsby, are still present seventy years later in the 1990’s world of Fight Club. The Great Gatsby is about America’s decline and the fall of the American dream with the struggle of the classes, and Fight Club is the continuation of thisRead MoreThe Great Gatsby And The Roaring Twenties1131 Words   |  5 Pagesdecade that roared with social amends† it was often referred to as the Roaring Twenties. Two famous literature pieces are very similar connecting key events and issues from this time period. F. Scott Fitzgeraldà ¢â‚¬â„¢s The Great Gatsby and Ken Allen’s â€Å"Roaring Twenties† both utilize conflict, foil and symbolism to help the readers acknowledge the influence of class and money over the characters during the Roaring Twenties. Conflict is a recurring struggle throughout The Great Gatsby and Ken Allen’s â€Å"RoaringRead MoreSocial Classes And The Lost Generation1343 Words   |  6 PagesBritton Hayman English Composition 3 10/15/15 Social Classes and the Lost Generation The Great Gatsby (2013), based on Fitzgerald’s 1925 novel, focuses on a relationship between a man and a woman who belong to different social classes in the 1920s. They are members of the Lost Generation, those in their 20s and 30s in the years immediately following World War I, and spent their lives searching for purpose. The Lost Generation grew up during the war, when most Americans were supporting the war effortRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1674 Words   |  7 PagesThe Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald is a novel that was published in 1925 which was a period known as the â€Å"roaring twenties†. During this period, America was witnessing a post war euphoria that was a companied by prosperity, glamour, self-indulgence and excessive consumption (Bloomfield, p. 17). According to Bourdieu, America at that time was going through a gaudiest spree in history that was characterized by a lot of social change and mobility (p.2). For example, the stock ma rket was gettingRead MoreSocial Class Within The Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1146 Words   |  5 PagesSocial classes in The Great Gatsby In today’s society many things revolve around your social class, and is that the way things should be? How big of a house you live in, what type of clothes you wear, how much money you have, are all questions that come into effect in today’s world. In the novel The Great Gatsby the theme of social class comes into effect quite often. All of the characters constantly pretend to be someone they are not just trying to be noticed by society. The author F. Scott Fitzgerald

Dante’s, The Divine Comedy - 1022 Words

In Dante’s, The Divine Comedy, Virgil leads Dante through the Inferno, where Dante undergoes changes in his compassion. I am going to argue that Dante expresses less compassion during his journey when Virgil leads him through the Inferno. This essay will prove how Dante shows more feelings at the beginning of the Inferno compared to the end of the Inferno. Dante is being a coward by thinking he is unable to make his journey: I’d be too slow had I obeyed by now. You need no more declare to me your will. But tell me why you take so little care and, down to this dead middle point, you leave the spacious circle where you burn to go. In this particular part, in Canto two, Dante†¦show more content†¦Near the end of the Inferno Dante is barely showing any emotions: I woke before the day ahead had come, and heard my sons (my little ones were there) cry in their sleep and call out for some food. How hard you are if, thinking what my heart foretold, you do not feel the pain of it. Whatever will you weep for, if not that? By now they all had woken up. The time was due when, as routine, our food was brought, Yet each was doubt, thinking of their dream. Listening, I heard the door below locked shut, then nailed in place against that dreadful tower, I looked in their dear faces, spoke no word. I did not weep. Inward, I turned to stone. They wept. And then my boy Anselmo spoke: ‘What are you staring at? Father, what’s wrong?’ And so I held my tears in check and gave no answer all that day, nor all the night that followed on, until another sun came up. (Dante, Inferno, 33: 37-54) Dante woke up before the day had started with his sons crying in their sleep for food. He didn’t really care that his sons were hungry and he didn’t understand what people weep for besides weeping for food because they are hungry. They received their food but then their door was nailedShow MoreRelatedThe Divine Comedy And Dantes Inferno1079 Words   |  5 Pageshis book The Divine Comedy: Inferno. Dante was born and raised in Italy and therefore had a natural hate for everything Greek related. The Inferno was written thousands of years after the Trojan war, and yet Dante still had a burning grudge against the Greeks for the way in which they defeated the Romans. Dante also validated his hatred by claiming he had family ties to the ancient Romans. In The Inferno, the main character Dante meets with the Roman poet Virgil who was one of Dante’s biggest influencesRead MoreAnalyzing Dantes The Divine Comedy2313 Words   |  9 Pagesmeted out and his use of contrapas so. Durante degli Alighieri, usually referred to as Dante (1265-1321), was an Italian poet, moral philosophers, and political thinker best known for his epic poem La divina commedia. Essentially, The Divine Comedy describes Dantes journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise guided at first by the Roman poet Virgil, and then by Beatrice, the subject of his undying love. In many ways, though, the poem is both a literary story of a journey and a commentary aboutRead MoreSignificance Of Comedy In Dantes Divine Comedy1193 Words   |  5 Pages1. Describe the significance of comedy in Dante`s Divine Comedy. a. In literature during the medieval and renaissance time a comedy meant that characters in a play, peom, or movie had to endure a hardship or disaster and the come to a happy ending. Comedy sometimes isn’t even a comedy, sometimes it has a deeper meaning. The significance of comedy in Dante`s Divine Comedy is that it stands up to the structural meaning of comedy. For example, it has a happing ending, which in most literature worksRead MoreDantes Expedition of Revenge in The Divine Comedy1033 Words   |  4 Pageswent on a journey that was motivated by acrimony, revenge and retribution. The Divine Comedy is a story of Dante’s expedition through the afterlife with the help from a Roman poet, Virgil. In the Divine Comedy living in Hell is the same as living on earth in poverty today. Today, there are many politicians who are trying to help with the welfare of poverty, but they never follow through with their goals. Throughout Dante’s life on earth he witnesses th e corruption of the church and power given to higherRead MoreFocus on a Pilgrim in Dantes Divine Comedy856 Words   |  3 PagesDante’s divine comedy focuses on the journey of a Pilgrim by the name of Dante from Italy in which he travels through the circles of Hell, the terraces of Purgatory and the spheres of Paradise. Dante the Pilgrim has lived his life the wrong way, in a way that goes against how God would live life and through this journey the pilgrim hopes to find a way to return to the path he was once on: the right path. Throughout his journey he encounters numerous souls who have either been placed in Hell, in PurgatoryRead MoreHell in Dantes Divine Comedy Essay example1364 Words   |  6 PagesHell in the divine Comedy and Aeneid In Dante’s Divine Comedy, Dante incorporates Virgil’s portrayal of Hades (In The Aeneid) into his poem, and similarities between the Inferno and Hades can be drawn, however Dante wasn’t attempting to duplicate Virgil’s works. Although the Hell depicted in Dante’s Inferno is essentially based on the literary construction of the underworld found in Virgil’s Aeneid, in their particulars the two kingdoms are quite different. Virgil’s underworld is largelyRead More Dantes Motivation to Write The Divine Comedy Essay3226 Words   |  13 PagesDantes Motivation to Write The Divine Comedy (La Divina Commedia) To truly comprehend Dante’s Divine Comedy, although complete comprehension is not necessary to enjoy this literary masterpiece, there are several skills one might need to acquire. For instance, one helpful piece of knowledge would be the ability to fluently speak Italian, since the many translations differ being able to have read Dante’s actual written words and understand them would make reading the Divine Comedy a bit moreRead More The Historical Significance of Dantes Divine Comedy Essay2452 Words   |  10 Pageshistorical significance of Dantes `Divine Comedy Dantes `Divine Comedy, the account of his journey through hell, purgatory and heaven is one of the worlds great poems, and a prime example of a most splendidly realized integration of life with art. More than being merely great poetry, or a chronicle of contemporary events, which it also is, the `Comedy is a study of human nature by a man quite experienced with it. The main argument I will make in this essay is that Dantes `Comedy is chiefly a workRead More Fame and Glory in Dantes Divine Comedy Essay2297 Words   |  10 Pages     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What is fame? Fame is but a slow decay   Even this shall pass away.   Theodore Tilton  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Divine Comedy, by Dante Alighieri, is a poem laden with such Christian themes as love, the search for happiness, and the desire to see God. Among these Christian themes, however, is Dantes obsession with and desire for fame, which seems to be a surprising departure from conventional medieval Christian morality. Indeed, as the poem progresses, a striking contradiction emerges. Dante theRead More Divine Comedy - The Trinity in Dantes Inferno Essay2097 Words   |  9 PagesTrinity in The Inferno      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dantes Inferno, itself one piece of a literary trilogy, repeatedly deploys the leitmotif of the number three as a metaphor for ambiguity, compromise, and transition. A work in terza rima that details a descent through Nine Circles of Hell, The Inferno encompasses temporal, literary, and political bridges and chasms that link Dantes inspired Centaur work between the autobiographical and the fictive, the mundane and the divine and, from a contemporary viewpoint

Questions On The Origins Of Philosophy - 1760 Words

Eren Halliburton 12/1/2016 Problems of Philosophy Research Paper Dr. Hutcherson The origins of philosophy began with the dynamic question of â€Å"What if?† followed by intellectual reasoning for the ways of the world. To look past the general purpose of life and the things that come with it; is when a new philosophy is discovered. The first recorded philosopher came about early on in the sixth century B.C.E. His name was Thales of Miletus or what is now Turkey. The first three philosophers, Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, are known as the Milesians because they all came from the Greek colony of Miletus on the Persian coast and because they constitute the first school of philosophy. (Pg. 24) However, little is known about Thales due to the fact, there weren’t any pieces of literature connecting to him. However, he did make it known that everything is fundamentally made up of water. This belief went against the theological perspectives of Greek mythology, introducing a more scientific view of the cosmos. Thales made it known that he wanted to f ind the Arche or unifying principle that linked every aspect of life together. According to Thales, water is the one and only Arche. Two of Thales successors and fellow Milesians, Anaximander and Anaximenes based their beliefs off of Thales philosophy. However, they didn’t seem to agree with Thales’ ideology of everything being broken down to water. Anaximander completely dismissed the idea of the four primary elements,Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Homer s Narrative About The Gods1049 Words   |  5 Pagesof thinking. As society began to develop, man began to question the truths of the universe, influencing their desire to grasp the Arche, ultimately leading to philosophies. Early Greek thinkers were some of the earliest to attempt to grasp the truths of our universe through thought and reasoning. But because of there being numerous thinkers during this time, there were many forms of thinking surfacing. This ranged from poetry to philosophies, meaning that multiple thought processes were invoked inRead MoreMr.Jlgibson1096 Words   |  5 Pages 09Sept14 To: Intro to Philosophy. Essay 1 What am I doing in this class? And how if at all. Do I think studying philosophy might benefit me. An introduction to Western Philosophy by Donald Palmer. I will attempt to answer three basic questions with this essay. What is Philosophy, What are the origins of Philosophy and why am I studying Philosophy today. Therefore my main reason for studying philosophy is to expand my knowledge and liveRead MoreThe Debate Of Pre Socrates Philosophy On The Nature Of Existence, Being And The World1322 Words   |  6 Pagesand during the life of Socrates. Pre-Socrates thinkers were primarily interested in metaphysic and cosmogony. â€Å"Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of existence, being and the world† (Miller, P.8) Metaphysical questions being those concerned with ultimate constitution of nature, while cosmological questions are focused on origins and structure of the universe. Before we get into introducing Pre-Socrates and their theories, we must know some terms: 1- Materialism (everythingRead MoreChicano Studies Quiz 1608 Words   |  3 PagesQUIZ #1 NOTE: Be sure to answer each question in complete sentence. Be sure to proofread your answer for correctness in grammar, spelling, punctuation mark, etc. Your answer must be word-processed, double-spaced (repeat, double-spaced), with 10-12 font size. Be sure to write your NAME and ID number in your paper. 1. Differentiate between: a. Ethics and Aesthetics Ethics constitutes the difference between right and wrong.Ethics are usually more broad and informal than laws, they are usuallyRead MoreSo far in this course we have discussed how some important aspects of human societies such as1500 Words   |  6 Pagesdisappointingly, they have failed to reach a consensus just as in many other philosophical inquiries. In his book, Nagel ambitiously aspires to address not merely the origin of consciousness but also its relation to the ultimate question concerning the human existence. A satisfactory explanation that accounts for consciousness has to solve two questions: first, constitutively why specific organisms have the conscious life they have, and second, historically why conscious organisms arose in the history of lifeRead MoreWhat Are Philosophy and Islamic Philosophy824 Words   |  3 PagesThis paper is designed about the discussion on what is philosophy and what is Islamic philosophy and philosophy itself. In first discussion is explain about the philosophy and the second discussion is discuss about the Islamic Philosophy. Generally, philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason and so forth. First and foremost, the term of philosophy is derived from combination two Greek words which is ‘Philos’Read MoreEssay on Philosophy 101710 Words   |  3 PagesA Sound It is the time and time again old saying does the tree falling in the woods make any sound if no one is around to hear it hit the ground. This question has plagued mankind for an undetermined amount of years many even centuries. No one is for sure of the questions origin however the question itself is the important factor not the origin. There has been many debates over the issue. I choose to use simple logic and reasoning close to the same as John Locke would of thought and try to makeRead MoreFriedrich Nietzsche s Influence On Modern Intellectual History And Western Philosophy1559 Words   |  7 Pagescritic, philologist, and a Greek and Latin scholar. His work has had lots of influence on modern intellectual history and Western philosophy in general. It revolved mainly around art, philology, religion and science. He wrote about morality, tragedy, aesthetics, atheism, epistemology and consciousness. However, some of Nietzsche s most profound elements of his philosophy include his powerful critique of reason and truth. He argued for perspectivism. He critiqued religion and Christian ethics, developedRead MoreEssay on Discussion over the Existence of God1249 Words   |  5 Pagesextraordinary realm of experience. Without a doubt, the question of Gods existence is one of the most significant questions of human philosophy. It alters the whole meaning of human life, and it challenges if man is really the Supreme Being in the universe or if man has a greater being that he must love and obey, or possibly defy. So the question is; does God exist? Look at the proof produced by the voraciously religious spirit of man, the origins of the universe, and morality. There are many differentRead MoreThe Major Divisions Of Philosophy860 Words   |  4 PagesOne of the major divisions of philosophy would be Metaphysics. According to Merriam-Webster online dictionary Metaphysics simply defined is â€Å"the part of philosophy that is concerned with the basic causes and natu re of things.† The full definition given is â€Å"a division of philosophy that is concerned with the fundamental nature of reality and being and that includes ontology, cosmology, and often epistemology.† According to John Phillips, in his book Exploring the Gospel of John, Aristotle used

Conditioning Psychology Free Essays

Learning is an important skill that all organisms must acquire in order to survive or fall prey to Darwinism’s main idea of survival of the fittest. Learning is the long lasting effect of a change in behavior. This would constrict the application of learning conditioning to a few applications. We will write a custom essay sample on Conditioning: Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now The three most recognizable applications are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and learning by observation. Each type of learning is different, but uses similar ideas such as an unconditioned stimulus, which is usually food, and an unconditioned response, which food is associated with salivation and hunger. There are several ways that an individual can condition an organism to learn skills through three different applications of learning: classical, operant, and observation. The idea of classical condition is one of the most notable learning techniques because it involves a stimulus rewarded for a certain response. Naturally, animals and human have unconditioned stimulus that triggers an unconditioned response. The most common connection is the correlation between food and salivation. Food naturally draws organism to it in order to satisfy a drive created by hunger to acquire homeostasis. A response is created because of the organism’s reaction to food, which is usually salivation. Classical conditioning is considered an effective way to train an organism to learn habits not naturally associated with certain unconditioned stimulus. This creates a conditioned stimulus. The once unconditioned response is now conditioned to respond to the conditioned stimulus, which is called a conditioned stimulus. An example of conditioned stimulus and response is the example of associating the school bell with food. Children are hungry by nature, but when the school bell is added, the children are reinforced to associate the school bell with lunchtime. Classical conditioning is effective when trying the teach an organism a skills by rewarding the organism with a unconditioned stimulus. An individual could use classical conditioning to teach an organism to learn skills that could aid in their own survival such as teaching human to avert certain food because of taste. If one were being taught to avert away from sour tastes, the teachers would first use a food that was extremely sour. By using the person’s innate instinct of hunger, they would give the person a lemon to eat. This sour extremity would cause the person to avoid lemons. The teacher would continuously use this tactic until the person has acquired the skill of aversion of lemons. The learner would have an acquisition of the skill. The teacher would then condition the learner in a variable interval to constantly reinforce the skill. The learner would then avoid all lemons. This may cause the learner to generalize the concept of lemon, for example, the learner may generalize the yellow color to symbolize all sour products, such as generalizing bananas as being sour. The teacher would then have the obligation of teaching the person how to discriminate items, so that his aversion is just towards lemons. While classical conditioning involves the stimulus being rewarded to incur a response, operant conditioning deals with changing the occurrence and forms of behavior. The main different between operant conditioning and classical conditioning is the operant conditioning deals with modifying the learner’s voluntary behavior. Operant conditioning involve consequences to teach desired skills. There are two ways that operant conditioning works, through reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement comes in two flavors: positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is the teacher adds something of pleasure to the learner’s behavior in order to get a certain skill. An example would be a mom allowing her child to play video games if the child put the trash outside. The mom uses the favorable stimulus, which is the video games, in order to achieve a behavior, which is taking out the trash, out of the child. There is also negative reinforcement, in which negative reinforcement is the teacher removing an aversive stimulus, which is usually seen as unpleasant, in order to increase the frequency of a certain behavior. For example, when someone wakes up early in the morning, they use an alarm clock to tell them when to wake up. When the alarm clock is activated, it sends a signal, which is usually an annoying buzzing noise, to the learner that it is time to wake up. To reinforce the behavior of waking up, the learner must get up from bed to turn off the aversive stimulus. Reinforcements are consequences of reinforcing favorable behaviors. Punishments, on the other hand, are consequences in which the teacher tries to reduce the frequency of unfavorable behaviors. As with reinforcements, there are also positive and negative punishments. Positive punishment refers to occurred behavior followed by aversive stimulation, such as shock. An example of positive punishment would be if a child had talked negative to the mom, and the mom would respond with a slap on the wrist in order to lessen the frequency of such behavior. Negative punishment, on the other hand, is the removal of a pleasurable stimulus after the occurrence of an undesirable behavior. As with the example of the mom, and the child taking out the trash, if the children had not taken out the trash, the mom would instead take away the video games to lessen the frequency of not taking out the trash. The problem with punishment is that it may cause the learner to demonstrate bad behavior in response to the punishment through responses of fear or anger, rather than lessen the occurrence of the aversive behavior. Operant conditioning is more effective using reinforcements than punishment. However, using both facets successfully is the most effective way. An individual could teach another through operant conditioning if one would like to change a voluntary behavior in another. The teacher would have to use reinforcements to reinforce the desired behavior from the learner. For example, if the individual wanted the learner to wash the dishes after eating, the individual would have to give an incentive to the learner in order for the behavior to continue, such as letting a child play video games after completing his chores. The continuous stimulation by the positive reinforcement would allow the learner to associate good behavior with pleasurable activities. Once the learner has acquired the behavior, the learner may generalize the behavior to include doing all his chores in order to gain the positive reinforcement. The teacher would use punishment sparingly to lessen the frequency of aversive behavior such a taking away the video games. The way that an individual could instruct an organism to acquire a skill is through observable learning. Observable learning is the observations made by the learner through the actions of the teacher in order to create a skill, or change a behavior. Observational learning is the most commonly used tactic. It allows the learner to learn a skill without reward or consequences. The learner learns through observing the teacher and then imitating the actions of the teacher. This is a more common tactic to teach child skills that are learned and reinforced throughout their adulthood, such as table manners. The individual could teach an organism how to do a skill through observational learning. The individual would do an act that is observed by the learner, and they would have the learner imitate the actions. For example, a mother would like to teach her child table manners. She would demonstrate proper table manners to the child. She would then have the child repeat and imitate her actions. Once the child has acquired that knowledge, the mom would continuously reinforce the behavior. The child would learn table manners without much need for punishment or reinforcers. The way that observational learning works, some may categorized observational learning as operant conditioning because it usually involves changing behaviors. The individual could use these three conditioning techniques in conjunction with each other, in combination with them, or separately. Either way, these techniques, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational leanring, are the effective way to show an organism how to learn skills. How to cite Conditioning: Psychology, Papers

Drug addiction and abuse Essay Example For Students

Drug addiction and abuse Essay The illegal or harmful use of drugs is a major threat to the world and to future generations. Drugs are substances that are becoming more common in our communities as each day goes by. The demand for drugs is also increasing daily. People need to act and play a part in the combating of drugs starting in their own homes. Every individual needs to be aware of the consequences of drug abuse and to help spread the word starting at young ages. All parts of local and world communities need to unite the strengths of professional expertise, generational wisdom, and individual commitment to combat the drug problem as they strive together toward a healthier world. The fear of facing the consequences might even prevent some of those who planned to handle drugs. Organizations against drug abuse need to support efforts to prevent availability and use of drugs, and oppose policies and programs that accept drug use. They also need to support international treaties and agreements, including international authorizations and penalties against drug trafficking, and oppose attempts to weaken international drug policies and laws. Higher support in organizing efforts for a drug-free environment is needed in every community. Students need to be offered a higher number of extracurricular activities in which to participate. This would help keep children and teens off of the streets. In their free time they would still be able to hang out with their peers and have fun, yet they would be safer being held under adult supervision. Society needs to support healthy drug-free attitudes, environment, and activities, while reinforcing non-acceptance toward the presence of drugs and destructive behavior. A higher amount of adult volunteers and organizations are needed in order to provide the children with these extracurricular activities without cost. This is where these organizations can ask for state government help in order to provide them with the sufficient money to provide these after school activities. Parents should also be encouraged to take a part in these programs with their children whenever they can. That way the bond between the parent and child can grow and there will be a higher comfort level when parents talk to their child about drug abuse. Many drug consumers are introduced to drugs at an early age when they are young and nave and become addicted from there on. If children have more knowledge about drugs and its consequences there is a better chance for them to making a wiser decision when it comes to drugs. According to an article from the National Center on Addiction and Substance abuse at Columbia University (CASA), only one in four teens in America lives with hands-on parents. These are parents who have established a household culture of rules and expectations for their teens behavior and monitor what their teens do, such as the TV shows they watch, the CDs they buy, what they access on the Internet, and where they are evenings and weekends. These teens are at one quarter the risk of smoking, drinking and using drugs as teens with hands-off parents, according to a new survey of one thousand American teen ages 12-17 released by CASA. Mothers and fathers who are parents to their children rather than pals can greatly reduce the risk of their children smoking, drinking and using drugs. .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad , .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad .postImageUrl , .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad , .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad:hover , .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad:visited , .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad:active { border:0!important; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad:active , .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u71c1fbf6140bc83394175bf41b4797ad:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Martin Luther King Jr. And Affirmative Action Essay They can counter negative media influences and the prevalence of marijuana and other drugs in a teens world. Drug prevention teams can also counter the messages sent by media .